k.l. wennstrom biology course sites

BIOL& 241 Lecture Learning Objectives (LOs)

Lecture topics

Learning objective levels

The learning objectives on this page are organized by complexity. You should work on them in order, because each level builds on the one before it.

Level 1 objectives
ask you to list or identify things and define terms. Master these before moving on to any of the other material.

Level 2 objectives
build on the level 1 objectives. It may take you more time to master all of them. I’ll help with tips and strategies for learning.

Level 3 objectives
apply info from Levels 1 and 2 LOs. Our worksheets and in-class discussions will focus on them.

Lecture learning objectives

01 – Intro to tissues

Level 1 objectives

  1. List the four basic tissue types

Level 2 objectives

  1. Describe the general characteristics of epithelial tissue
  2. Describe the general functions of epithelial tissue
  3. Describe how epithelia are classified in terms of cell shape and cell layering
  4. Identify and briefly describe the three components of connective tissue
  5. Describe the general functions of connective tissue
  6. Describe how connective tissues are classified in terms of their matrix properties

Level 3 objectives

  1. Identify, compare, and contrast epithelial subtypes: simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, stratified squamous, pseudostratified columnar, transitional
  2. Identify, compare, and contrast connective tissue subtypes in terms of resident cells, ground substance (composition & amount), and proteins (types & arrangement): areolar, dense regular, dense irregular, reticular, adipose, osseous, cartilage, blood
  3. Describe the relationship of form to function in epithelial and connective tissue subtypes

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02 – Tissues & integument

Level 1 objectives

  1. Define exocrine and endocrine
  2. Distinguish between channels, carrier proteins, ion pumps, symporters, and antiporters
  3. Distinguish between active and passive transport
  4. List the layers of the integument in order from superficial to deep
  5. Identify the major functions of the integumentary system

Level 2 objectives

  1. List the three types of muscle tissue and distinguish between them in terms of structure and location
  2. Identify the major cell types found in nervous tissue
  3. Briefly diagram and describe how solutes and water enter and exit epithelial cells (e.g. when are transporters required vs. simple diffusion? when is active vs. passive transport used?)
  4. Describe the structure of the four basic types of body membranes: cutaneous, mucous, serous, and synovial
  5. Identify examples of exocrine and endocrine glands
  6. Describe the structure of the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis
  7. Identify the following integumentary organs and describe their structure, function, and location: sweat glands (eccrine and apocrine), sebaceous glands, nails, hair follicle and arrector pili muscle, and sensory receptors (tactile disk, tactile corpuscle, lamellated corpuscle, root hair plexus, and free nerve endings)
  8. Identify the three pigments most responsible for variations in skin color and describe the location of each pigment with in the skin.

Level 3 objectives

  1. Compare and contrast the structure of epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis in terms of cell and tissue types
  2. Describe the relationship of form to function in the integument

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03 – Terminology

Level 1 objectives

  1. Distinguish between structure (anatomy) and function (physiology)
  2. Describe the relationship between cells, tissues, organs, and systems
  3. Demonstrate anatomic position
  4. Define the three common planes of section (coronal/frontal, sagittal, transverse)

Level 2 objectives

  1. Define the following anatomical directional terms: anterior, posterior, dorsal, ventral, cranial, caudal, rostral, proximal, distal, medial, lateral, ipsilateral, contralateral, superficial, deep
  2. Define the following anatomic regional terms: abdominal, antebrachial, antecubital, auricular, axillary, brachial, buccal, calcaneal, carpal, cephalic, cervical, coxal, cranial, crural, deltoid, digital, dorsal, femoral, fibular, frontal, gluteal, hallux, inguinal, lumbar, mammary, manus, mental, nasal, occipital, olecranal, oral, orbital, palmar, patellar, pectoral, pelvic, perineal, pes (pedal), plantar, pollex, popliteal, pubic, radial, sacral, scapular, sternal, sural, tarsal, thoracic, tibial, ulnar, umbilical, vertebral
  3. Define the following body cavities and their subdivisions: posterior (or dorsal) body cavity, ventral body cavity, thoracic cavity & subdivisions, abdominopelvic cavity & subdivisions, cranial cavity, vertebral canal
  4. Identify the serous membranes associated with the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities
  5. Define the four abdominopelvic quadrants and identify the major organs found in each

Level 3 objectives

  1. Use anatomic terminology appropriately (e.g. identify body cavities and membranes from pictures or descriptions, describe the location of body parts or injuries, identify planes of section from medical images, select the appropriate plane of section to view specific structures).

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04 – Skeletal tissue & skeleton organization

Level 1 objectives

  1. List the three types of cartilage tissue and two types of adult osseous (bone) tissue
  2. Describe the general functions of the skeletal system
  3. Distinguish between the axial and appendicular skeleton
  4. Recognize the general types of bones (flat, long, short, irregular)

Level 2 objectives

  1. Describe bone & cartilage as connective tissues (i.e. in terms of their cells and their matrix structure and composition)
  2. Compare and contrast the three types of cartilage in terms of structure, function, and location
  3. Compare and contrast the structure of spongy and compact bone
  4. Diagram the parts of an osteon and briefly state the function of canaliculae and lacunae
  5. Describe the function and location of osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteoprogenitor cells
  6. Describe the structure of a long bone
  7. Distinguish between red and yellow bone marrow in terms of tissue composition, location, and function
  8. State the name and purpose of basic bone markings (spines, processes, foramina, etc.)

Level 3 objectives

  1. Explain the relationship of form to function in the three types of cartilage tissue
  2. Explain the relationship of form to function in the two types of adult bone tissue
  3. Identify the bones of the human body (those included on lab objectives list) and describe their location and articulations using appropriate anatomic terminology

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05 – Osteogenesis & calcium homeostasis

Level 1 objectives

  1. List the two main types of ossification
  2. Distinguish between interstitial and appositional growth
  3. Define bone remodeling
  4. Define homeostasis, stimulus, receptor, integrating center, and effector
  5. Distinguish between positive and negative feedback

Level 2 objectives

  1. Compare and contrast intramembranous and endochondral ossification and identify specific bones that undergo each process.
  2. Describe the structure and function of the epiphyseal plate
  3. List and briefly describe the steps in a homeostatic feedback loop, starting with stimulus and ending with the response
  4. Describe the role of the three major bone cells (osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts) in bone remodeling
  5. Identify the source (what secretes it) and the targets (which cells/tissues it acts on) of the hormones involved in calcium homeostasis and state effect of each hormone on its targets: parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, calcitriol
  6. Briefly describe the functions of the hormones involved in the regulation of skeleton growth (whether they promote bone growth or resorption, and their effect on osteoclasts and/or osteoblast activity): growth hormone, thyroid hormone, sex hormones, glucocorticoids

Level 3 objectives

  1. Diagram the processes involved in the body’s response to disturbance of calcium homeostasis, including the role of osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts

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06 – Articulations

Level 1 objectives

  1. List the three structural categories and three functional categories of joints

Level 2 objectives

  1. Identify joints in each of the structural and functional categories
  2. Describe how the structural and functional categories of joints relate to one another
  3. Describe the structure of fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints
  4. Define the general movements at synovial joints (flexion, extension, hyperextension, adduction, abduction, rotation, circumduction)
  5. Define the special movements of particular synovial joints and identify the joints at which they occur (elevation, depression, pronation, supination, dorsiflexion, plantar flexion, inversion, eversion, protraction, retraction, opposition)

Level 3 objectives

  1. Identify and demonstrate the listed general and special movements
  2. Describe the relationship of form to function in the different types of joints

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07 – Muscle tissue

Level 1 objectives

  1. List the three types of muscle tissue
  2. Describe the basic functions of muscle tissue
  3. Describe the structural organization of a skeletal muscle, including connective tissue components

Level 2 objectives

  1. Compare and contrast the structure of the three types of muscle tissue
  2. Describe the anatomy of a skeletal muscle fiber including the major organelles (myofibrils, sarcoplasmic reticulum, nucleus, mitochondria, transverse tubules)
  3. Briefly describe the function of the major organelles of the skeletal muscle fiber listed above (use 2-3 words each, e.g. “transmits action potential”, “stores calcium”, etc.)
  4. Describe the anatomy of the neuromuscular junction
  5. Diagram and describe the structure of a sarcomere including the myofilaments, connectin (also called titin), the A band, I band, H zone, Z disc, and M line

Level 3 objectives

  1. Explain the relationship of form to function in skeletal muscle at the tissue and cellular levels

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08 – Physiology of muscle contraction

Level 1 objectives

  1. Identify the major neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction
  2. List the major channels found in the sarcolemma (including those at the motor end plate)
  3. Define depolarization and repolarization

Level 2 objectives

  1. Describe the sliding filament model of sarcomere contraction
  2. Describe the mechanism by which electrical excitation of muscle cells is coupled to muscle contraction
  3. Describe the events in a muscle cross-bridge cycle

Level 3 objectives

  1. Predict how changes in ion concentration, channel function, neurotransmitter abundance, and other relevant parameters will affect muscle contraction

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09 – Muscle metabolism & innervation

Level 1 objectives

  1. Define the terms tension and contraction with respect to muscles
  2. Define the terms twitch, muscle tone, and tetany (also called tetanus)
  3. Define the terms motor unit and motor unit recruitment
  4. Define muscle fatigue

Level 2 objectives

  1. Describe the mechanisms and sources of energy that muscle fibers use to obtain ATP for muscle contraction including glycolysis, aerobic respiration, and phosphate transfer
  2. List the anatomical and metabolic characteristics of fast glycolytic, fast oxidative, and slow oxidative muscle fibers
  3. Explain the physiological basis for the phenomena of twitch, muscle tone, and tetanus
  4. Discuss the relationship of motor unit size to muscle function (power vs. precision)
  5. Distinguish between isometric, isotonic, concentric, and eccentric contraction
  6. Identify the primary cause of muscle fatigue and briefly list other potential causes

Level 3 objectives

  1. Explain the relationship between stimulus frequency and muscle tension at the level of a single muscle fiber (what does an increase in frequency mean at the level of the motor neuron and what happens in the muscle cell as a result?)
  2. Explain the relationship between stimulus intensity and muscle tension at the level of a whole muscle (what does an increase in intensity mean at the level of the motor nerve, and what happens in the muscle as a result?)
  3. Explain the relationship between muscle tension, resistance, and changes in muscle length for isometric, eccentric, and concentric muscle contractions

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10 – Muscle actions & identification

Level 1 objectives

  1. Define origin, insertion, agonist (prime mover), antagonist, synergist, and fixator

Level 2 objectives

  1. Describe muscles in action using the terms prime mover (agonist), antagonist, synergist, fixator
  2. Describe the location, attachments, and action of the major muscles of the body (see lab LOs — the same level of detail is required for both lecture and lab)
  3. Describe the location and action of the muscles of facial expression and the extrinsic ocular muscles (see lab LOs — the same level of detail is required for both lecture and lab)
  4. Describe how the name of each muscle is related to its structure, action, attachments, or location

Level 3 objectives

  1. Explain the relationship of form to function in skeletal muscle at the organ and system levels
  2. Identify the major human muscles through pictures, description, video, or demonstration of their location, attachments, or action

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11 – Nervous tissue & NS organization

Level 1 objectives

  1. Describe the basic functions of the nervous system
  2. Distinguish between the CNS (central nervous system) and the PNS (peripheral nervous system)
  3. List the two primary types of cells found in the nervous system List the six types of glial cells Identify the dendrites, axon, and cell body of the three structural categories of neuron (multipolar, bipolar, unipolar)
  4. Define the terms neuron, nerve, ganglion, synapse
  5. Differentiate between leak channels, voltage-gated channels, chemically-gated channels, and ion pumps

Level 2 objectives

  1. Diagram the organization of the nervous system as a reflex pathway (stimulus -> response) and describe the roles of sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons with respect to this pathway
  2. Briefly describe the structure, function, and location of the six types of glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, neurolemmocytes, satellite cells)
  3. Diagram the structure of the neuron and briefly describe the functions of dendrites, cell body, axons, myelin sheath, and nodes of Ranvier (also known as neurofibril nodes)
  4. Describe the distribution of ion channels in the neuronal membrane
  5. Describe the structure of a chemical synapse
  6. Describe the anatomy of a nerve

Level 3 objectives

  1. Describe the relationship of form to function within a neuron
  2. Identify the parts of a reflex loop from examples (e.g. identify the stimulus or effector from a description of the knee-jerk reflex)

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12 – Neuron function

Level 1 objectives

  1. Define the term membrane potential
  2. Describe the concentration gradients for sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride in neurons at rest

Level 2 objectives

  1. Describe the function of the voltage gated sodium and potassium channels of the axon
  2. Describe how the resting membrane potential is established and maintained
  3. Describe how an action potential is generated and propagated in both myelinated and unmyelinated neurons
  4. Describe the sequence of events in synaptic transmission
  5. Differentiate between excitatory and inhibitory post-synaptic potentials in terms of the their effect on membrane potential and on the likelihood of action potential generation
  6. Compare and contrast the resting membrane potential, action potentials, and post-synaptic potentials

Level 3 objectives

  1. Predict how changes in ECF or ICF ion concentrations, channel function, neurotransmitter abundance, and other relevant parameters will affect resting membrane potential, action potentials, synaptic transmission, and post-synaptic potentials

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13 – Brain & cranial nerves

Level 1 objectives

  1. List the cranial meninges from superficial to deep
  2. Define the terms white matter, gray matter, gyrus, sulcus, fissure, ventricle, tract, nucleus
  3. Identify the lobes of the cerebrum
  4. Identify the ventricles of the brain

Level 2 objectives

  1. Briefly describe the process of neurulation
  2. Identify adult structures derived from the neural tube, neural crest, neural canal, and the primary and secondary brain vesicles
  3. Describe the production and circulation of CSF
  4. Describe the importance and the structural basis for the blood brain barrier
  5. Describe the basic functions associated with each of the cerebral lobes
  6. Identify the two major speech centers, describe their location, and briefly describe the function of each
  7. Describe the location of the primary motor and somatosensory cortices and briefly explain how body areas are mapped onto them (sensory & motor homunculi)
  8. Identify the twelve cranial nerves by name and number; classify them as sensory, motor, or mixed; and briefly describe the function of each
  9. Describe the location and major functions of the cerebral (basal) nuclei, thalamus, hypothalamus, brainstem, cerebellum, and the limbic system

Level 3 objectives

  1. Predict symptoms in patients with injuries to brain areas or cranial nerves
  2. Given symptoms, identify which brain areas or cranial nerves are injured

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14 – Spinal cord & spinal nerves

Level 1 objectives

  1. List the meninges of the spinal cord from superficial to deep
  2. Describe the general anatomical arrangement of white and gray matter within the spinal cord
  3. Identify the posterior horn, anterior horn, and lateral horn of the gray matter
  4. Define the terms funiculus, nerve plexus, ganglion
  5. List the four spinal nerve plexuses

Level 2 objectives

  1. Describe the structure of a spinal nerve and the posterior and anterior roots
  2. Identify the spinal nerves that contribute to each of the four spinal nerve plexuses, and the general regions of the body that each plexus serves
  3. Describe the intercostal nerves (spinal nerve numbers, body region innervated)
  4. Identify which spinal nerves contribute to the intercostal nerves and name the general body region the intercostal nerves innervate
  5. Diagram and briefly describe the components a spinal reflex arc
  6. Distinguish between each of the following pairs of reflexes: innate (aka intrinsic, inborn) reflexes vs. acquired (aka learned) reflexes, somatic vs. visceral reflexes, monosynaptic vs. polysynaptic reflexes, and ipsilateral vs. contralateral reflexes.
  7. Describe the location and function of muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs
  8. Describe the distribution of the gray matter of the spinal cord by function (e.g. sensory vs. motor, somatic vs. visceral)

Level 3 objectives

  1. Identify the parts of a reflex arc from examples such as stretch reflexes, crossed-extensor reflexes, and withdrawal reflexes

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15 – Pathways and integrative functions

Level 1 objectives

  1. Distinguish between sensory and motor pathways in terms of the direction of travel and the type of information carried
  2. Identify the location of the posterior funiculus, the spinothalamic tracts, and the lateral corticospinal tract in a cross section of the spinal cord (you are not responsible for knowing anything about the anterior corticospinal tract for this class)

Level 2 objectives

  1. Trace the posterior funiculus/medial lemniscal and anterolateral pathways from the periphery to the somatosensory cortex (i.e. peripheral axon pathway, location of primary/secondary/tertiary neurons, relevant tracts, location of decussation)
  2. List the type of sensory information carried by each of the ascending pathways above
  3. Distinguish between upper and lower motor neurons
  4. Trace the direct pathway (a.k.a. pyramidal pathway) from the primary motor cortex to the muscle (i.e. location of UMN and LMN, lateral corticospinal tract, location of decussation, peripheral axon pathway)

Level 3 objectives

  1. Given clinical symptoms (e.g. ability to move certain limbs, feel touch or pain in hands or feet, etc), predict the nature of spinal cord injuries (e.g. region of the spine, left or right side of cord, anterior or posterior side of cord, etc.)
  2. Given the nature of a spinal cord injury, predict clinical symptoms

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16 – Autonomic nervous system

Level 1 objectives

  1. List the two branches of the autonomic nervous system
  2. Distinguish between the effector tissues (skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, glandular epithelium) controlled by the somatic nervous system and by the autonomic nervous system
  3. Define cholinergic and adrenergic

Level 2 objectives

  1. Compare and contrast the somatic and autonomic motor systems
  2. Compare and contrast the anatomy of two branches of the autonomic nervous system (location of preganglionic cell bodies, length of preganglionic & postganglionic fibers, ganglion location, neurotransmitters used)
  3. Identify the target organs of the two branches of the ANS
  4. Identify the major cholinergic and adrenergic receptor subtypes, describe their distribution, and identify whether their effect is excitatory, inhibitory, or both (depending on the target tissue)

Level 3 objectives

  1. Diagram basic autonomic reflex pathways including the physiological effect(s) on the target organ

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17 – Sensory systems

Level 1 objectives

  1. Define the term sensory receptor and distinguish it from a receptor protein
  2. Define the terms receptive field and adaptation
  3. List the types of sensory receptors based on receptor distribution, stimulus origin, and modality of stimulus

Level 2 objectives

  1. Describe the function of each type of sensory receptor listed above and offer examples of each type.
  2. Briefly explain the function of modality-gated channels in the formation of a receptor potential (generator potential)
  3. Distinguish between encapsulated and unencapsulated tactile receptors in terms of structure and function, and give two to three examples of each
  4. Identify specific receptor cells (e.g. rods & cones, different taste receptors, hair cells, etc.) and describe their location within the sense organ for each of the special senses (gustation, olfaction, vision, hearing, equilibrium)
  5. Briefly describe how the receptor cells of the five special senses transduce stimuli
  6. Describe the pathway of sensory information from receptor to the cerebral cortex for each of the five special senses

Level 3 objectives

  1. Relate the structure of the sensory organ to its function for each of the five special senses

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