BIOL 242 Lecture Learning Objectives

Learning Objective Levels

The learning objectives below are organized by complexity. You should work on them in order, because each level builds on the one before it.

1	Level 1 objectives are simple and straightforward. You should master these before moving on to any of the other material.
2	Level 2 objectives are more detailed and involved, and build on the level 1 objectives. It may take you more time to master all of it. I will provide you with tips and strategies to help you work with these LOs, but we won't spend a lot of class time in direct instruction on them.
3	Level 3 objectives require you to use the information you've learned as part of the other objectives. We'll spend more of our class time on these topics, and our worksheets and discussions will focus on them.

Endocrine 1

Describe the major functions of the endocrine system
Define the terms paracrine and autocrine
Define the terms hormone, endocrine gland, endocrine tissue (organ), and target cell
List the major chemical classes of hormones found in the human body
List the major hormones produced by the hypothalamus, thyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, testis, and ovary

Compare and contrast the function of the nervous and endocrine systems in terms of the mechanism of communication, how the target is determined, the response time, and the duration of the response.
Describe the major types of stimuli that control the release of hormones
Compare and contrast the major chemical classes of hormone in terms of structure, how they are carried in the blood, receptors (cell membrane or intracellular), and mechanism of response (change in gene expression vs. activation of second messengers)
Identify the major types of eicosanoids and briefly describe their function and how they are produced

Endocrine II

1	Define the terms releasing hormone, inhibiting hormone and tropic hormone Define the terms negative feedback and positive feedback Define the terms synergist, antagonist, and analog with respect to the endocrine system
2	Describe the roles of negative and positive feedback in controlling hormone release Briefly describe the causes and effects of receptor upregulation or downregulation Describe the anatomy of the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus Explain the role of the hypothalamus in the release of anterior pituitary hormones and the production and release of posterior pituitary hormones Describe the stimuli for release and the physiological effects of the hormones of the thyroid gland, adrenal gland, testis, ovary and the endocrine pancreas Describe the three stages of the stress response (general adaptation syndrome), identify the major hormones released during each stage, and describe the actions of those hormones.
3	Predict factors or situations affecting the endocrine organs that could disrupt homeostasis For any hormone controlled by the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, predict the effects of disruptions that alter the synthesis, secretion, or action (e.g. receptor upregulation or downregulation, application of antagonist or analog, etc.) of the primary, tropic, or releasing hormones in the pathway

Blood

1	Describe the function of blood and identify its two major components List the formed elements of blood and classify them as cellular or non-cellular List the four ABO blood types and the two Rh blood types Define agglutination, coagulation, and hemostasis
2	Describe the composition of blood plasma, including the including the major types of plasma proteins, their functions and where in the body they are produced Describe the structure and function of erythrocytes, leukocytes (as a group), and platelets Discuss the structure and function of hemoglobin and identify its major breakdown products List the five types of leukocyte found in circulation in order from most to least common, classify them as granulocyte or agranulocyte, and describe the their functions including the two major subtypes of lymphocytes (T and B) Describe the structure and function of platelets Describe blood cell and platelet formation in terms of the location in the body where it takes place, the two primary stem cell lines involved, and the circulating cells or formed elements that arise from each line State the normal ranges for erythrocyte counts and hematocrit, total leukocyte count, and platelet count. Explain the role of surface antigens on RBCs in determining blood groups and list the type of antigen and the type of antibodies present in each ABO and Rh blood type List and briefly describe the phases of hemostasis, and briefly discuss how a blood clot is eliminated
3	Describe how structure is related to function in erythrocytes Evaluate transfusion matches based on ABO and Rh blood types

Heart: intro & cellular function

1	Describe the major functions of the cardiovascular system List the two primary cardiovascular circuits and briefly identify the structures to which they deliver blood List the four chambers of the heart Describe the position of the heart within the thoracic cavity using appropriate anatomic terminology
2	Describe the pattern of flow through the two primary cardiovascular circuits Describe the anatomy of the heart wall including the pericardium Describe the gross anatomy of the heart including chambers, valves, and great vessels Describe the structure and function of the cardiac skeleton Describe the structure of cardiac muscle in detail Describe the structure of the conduction system of the heart and describe how it contributes to efficient pumping of blood List the three unique ion channels found in cardiac autorhythmic cells, define the term pacemaker potential, and explain why these cells depolarize spontaneously Describe the phases of the action potential of a cardiac muscle cell including ion movements and permeability Compare and contrast contraction in cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle
3	Describe the relationship of form to function in the heart at the organ, tissue, and cellular levels, using the information from the previous objectives Compare and contrast the way action potentials are generated in cardiac pacemaker cells, cardiac contractile cells, neurons, and skeletal muscle

Heart: control of cardiac output

1	Define systole and diastole Define cardiac output, stroke volume, venous return, end systolic volume (ESV), and end diastolic volume (EDV), preload, and afterload Differentiate between inotropic and chronotropic agents in terms of their effect on heart performance
2	Describe the electrical and mechanical events of the cardiac cycle and explain how the two are related Relate the mechanical events of the cardiac cycle to the waves on an ECG tracing Interpret a graph of pressure and ventricular volume (Wiggers diagram) to determine specific pressures, volumes, and timing of events in the cardiac cycle Describe the innervation of cardiac muscle and pacemaker cells and predict the effects of ANS output on cardiac function State the equation for cardiac output and use it to calculate cardiac output, stroke volume, or heart rate given appropriate data List & briefly describe the factors that affect stroke volume (venous return, inotropic factors, afterload) and identify whether each factor affects end systolic volume (ESV) or end diastolic volume (EDV) List the factors that affect venous return and indicate whether they increase or decrease it Calculate SV from ESV and EDV
3	Use pressure-volume loops to diagram variations in cardiac function Recognize abnormalities in an ECG tracing and suggest plausible hypotheses as to the cause of the abnormalities

Vessels & blood pressure

1	List the three major types of blood vessel in the order blood passes through them beginning at the heart Define peripheral resistance, vasoconstriction, and vasodilation
2	Describe the structure of the vascular system wall Compare and contrast the structure and function of the major vessel types Compare and contrast the three types of capillaries in terms of structure and permeability Describe the mechanism of fluid exchange across the capillary wall Given a general body region (head, neck, thorax, abdomen, arm, forearm, thigh, leg), name the major vessels that pass through that region Describe the mathematical relationship between pressure, flow, and resistance Describe the relationship between total cross sectional area of the vessels and blood velocity and explain the significance of this relationship Calculate pulse pressure and mean arterial pressure Identify the two primary determinants of mean arterial pressure List the major factors that affect peripheral resistance and describe how each of these factors are controlled
3	Trace the path of a red blood cell through the major vessels, heart chambers, and valves of the human cardiovascular system Diagram chemoreceptor and baroreceptor reflex pathways involved in the control of systemic blood pressure Predict the effect of homeostatic disturbances that affect mean arterial pressure (e.g. hemorrhage, dehydration, changes in heart function, vasoconstriction or vasodilation, etc.)

Lymphatic system

1	Identify the two main parts of the lymphatic system Describe the composition of lymph fluid Distinguish between the terms "lymph vessel" and "lymphatic vessel" Name the two lymphatic ducts
2	Describe how lymph fluid enters lymph capillaries Identify the lymphatic organs and tissues Describe the function of lymphatic tissue and distinguish between the roles of primary and secondary lymphatic structures Describe the flow of lymph fluid through the lymphatic system (lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, lymphatic trunks, thoracic duct, right lymphatic duct). Distinguish between the general body parts drained by the thoracic duct and by the right lymphatic duct
3	Trace the path of lymph fluid from its site of origin until it returns to the blood circulation

Respiratory: gross & microanatomy

1	Describe the major functions of the respiratory system List the structures of the upper respiratory tract including the three regions of the pharynx List the structures of the lower respiratory tract Define conducting zone and respiratory zone with respect to the respiratory tract Identify the five lung lobes
2	Briefly state the function and describe the gross anatomy of the paranasal sinuses, pleural membranes, pleural cavity, and diaphragm Briefly state the function and describe the gross anatomy of the structures of the upper respiratory tract and identify their epithelial linings Briefly state the function and describe the gross anatomy and histology of structures in the lower respiratory tract including the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli including the respiratory membrane
3	Trace the path of an oxygen molecule from atmospheric air through the respiratory tract and into the plasma; also be able to trace the pathway of a carbon dioxide molecule in the opposite direction

Respiratory: ventilation

1	List and briefly define the four respiration processes Define the terms total pulmonary ventilation, alveolar ventilation, and minute ventilation Define tidal volume and anatomic dead space and state their typical values
2	Describe the four respiration processes in terms of the structures involved and the driving force for movement of gases (bulk flow vs. diffusion) Identify the muscles used during quiet inspiration, forced inspiration, and forced expiration. Identify the location and function of the integrating centers for control of respiratory reflexes, including the major chemical and neural stimuli that affect them Describe the mechanics of inspiration and expiration with reference to Boyle’s law of pressure and volume State the values of intrapulmonary, intrapleural, and transpulmonary pressures relative to atmospheric pressure, and describe the importance of each to the mechanics of inhalation and exhalation Define compliance, offer examples that increase or decrease it, and describe the effect of changes in lung compliance on lung volume during inspiration Use spirograms to measure or calculate the respiratory volumes and capacities Calculate the value of total pulmonary ventilation (minute ventilation) and alveolar ventilation given tidal volume and breath rate Explain the effect of anatomic dead space on alveolar ventilation and the composition of alveolar air
3	Diagram reflex pathways involving the respiratory control centers in the pons and medulla oblongata, including the cranial and spinal nerves that serve as afferent and efferent pathways

Respiratory: gas exchange & transport

1	Define and calculate partial pressure of a gas State the factors that determine how much gas will dissolve in a liquid at a given temperature (Henry’s law) Define hyperventilation, hypoventilation, eupnea, hyperpnea, and apnea
2	List the factors that affect gas exchange across the respiratory membrane Diagram the mechanisms involved in ventilation-perfusion coupling and predict the effect of changes in pulmonary blood flow or alveolar ventilation Describe the relationship between CO₂ levels and plasma pH Describe how oxygen and carbon dioxide are carried in the plasma and by RBCs Interpret oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curves to determine hemoglobin saturation or oxygen partial pressures Describe how oxygen transport in the blood is affected by temperature, pH, CO₂ binding, and 2,3-BPG
3	Predict how alterations in environment (e.g. altitude) or respiratory function (e.g. change in alveolar ventilation, bronchial diameter, etc.) would alter alveolar and plasma oxygen and carbon dioxide levels Use oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curves to solve problems involving alterations in oxygen partial pressure and hemoglobin affinity for oxygen

Renal: intro & filtration

1	List the major organs of the urinary system and briefly describe their functions List the general functions of the urinary system List and briefly describe the three processes that contribute to urine formation Define glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
2	Describe the gross anatomy of the kidney Describe the histology of the renal cortex and renal medulla, the proximal convoluted tubule, the nephron loop, the distal convoluted tubule, and the collecting duct Trace the path of a blood cell through the vasculature of the kidney from the aorta to the vena cava Describe the location, structure, and function of the juxtaglomerular apparatus Identify the parts of the nephron and describe their functions Describe the structure of the filtration membrane Identify and describe the three forces that affect glomerular filtration Describe the autoregulatory mechanisms that control GFR Describe the roles of the sympathetic nervous system, the renin-angiotensin system, and natriuretic peptides in the extrinsic control of GFR
3	Relate the structure of the nephron regions to their functions Predict the outcome of changes in blood pressure, capsular pressure, or osmotic pressure on GFR

Renal: reabsorption & secretion

1	Define renal plasma clearance
2	Describe the mechanisms by which substances are reabsorbed or secreted from the nephron Describe the process of urine formation and determine the excretion rate of substances given appropriate data Describe the gross anatomy and histology of the organs in the distal urinary system (ureters, urinary bladder, urethra) Trace the path urine takes as it leaves the nephron and ultimately exits the body Describe the micturition reflex and identify which aspects are voluntary and which involuntary
3	Solve problems involving renal plasma clearance (e.g. calculate clearance, calculate GFR) and renal handling of substances (e.g. determine whether there is net secretion or net reabsorption) Trace the paths of molecules that are filtered or secreted into the nephron and subsequently reabsorbed or excreted Relate the structure of the organs of the distal urinary tract to their functions

Renal: fluid & pH balance

1	List the fluid compartments of the body including the subdivisions of the extracellular fluid State the normal pH range for arterial blood Define acidosis and alkalosis List the three primary buffer systems in the blood and state their chemical equations
2	Identify the stimuli for the secretion of renin Describe the process of angiotensin II formation Identify angiotensin II’s targets and describe its effects on those targets Identify the stimuli for the secretion of aldosterone, ADH, and ANP Identify the targets of aldosterone, ADH, and ANP and describe their effects on those targets Describe the mechanisms by which substances move between the body compartments Identify which buffer systems are most important in each body fluid compartment Describe the role of the respiratory system in regulation of blood pH, including respiratory-induced disturbances in pH Describe the primary causes for metabolic disturbances in pH Describe the role of the kidneys in the regulation of blood pH
3	Identify appropriate respiratory and renal compensations for changes in body fluid pH depending on the nature of the disturbance (metabolic or respiratory origin) Diagram reflex pathways involving changes in body volume and/or osmolarity, including renal and cardiovascular responses

Digestive: upper GI tract

1	Describe the major functions of the digestive system Distinguish between mechanical and chemical digestion List the structures of the GI tract in order from mouth to anus Define peristalsis and segmentation
2	Name the serosal membranes of the abdominal cavity (visceral peritoneum, parietal peritoneum, greater omentum, lesser omentum, mesocolon, mesenteries proper) and describe their arrangement Describe the histology, arrangement and function of the four major layers (tunics) of the GI tract wall Describe the gross anatomy and histology of the esophagus and stomach Trace the path through the upper GI tract including all major divisions of each of the organs and the valves and sphincters separating them Discuss the roles of the different types of motility in the alimentary canal Describe the function of each cell type within the gastric glands (parietal cells, chief cells, G-cells Describe the neural, chemical, and hormonal means by which secretion and motility are regulated in the stomach
3	Describe the relationship of form to function in the esophagus and stomach Compare and contrast the gross anatomy and histology of the regions of the upper GI tract

Digestive: lower GI tract

1	Define mass movement List the accessory digestive organs Identify the three major macronutrients
2	Describe the gross anatomy and histology of the small intestine, colon, rectum, and anus Trace the path through the lower GI tract including all major divisions of each of these organs and the valves and sphincters separating them Describe the role of the duodenum in the regulation of gastric, pancreatic, and cystic (gall bladder) activity Describe the defecation reflex and its conscious control Describe the gross anatomy and histology of the pancreas and liver Identify the vessels of the hepatic portal system, the organs they serve or drain, and describe the path of blood flow through them Trace the path of bile or pancreatic juice from the site of origin to the lumen of the duodenum Describe how and where each macronutrient (fat, carbohydrate, protein) is processed by the digestive system from ingestion to absorption
3	Describe the relationship of form to function in the small intestine and large intestine Compare and contrast the gross anatomy and histology of the regions of the lower GI tract Trace the path of any given food molecule in detail as it is ingested, digested, absorbed from the gut, passed to the liver, and delivered to body tissues

Reproductive: gamete production & transport

1	Describe the major functions of the male and female reproductive systems Define gonad, gamete, and fertilization Identify the usual site of fertilization Define gametogenesis, mitosis, and meiosis
2	Compare and contrast the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis Identify and describe the cells of the ovarian follicle Describe the stages of follicular development from pre-ovulatory follicle to corpus luteum Describe the histology of the uterine wall Identify and describe the cells of the seminiferous tubules of the testis List the accessory glands of male reproduction, describe their secretions, and identify the anatomic structures where their secretions enter the reproductive tract Trace the path of male and female gametes from gonads to the site of fertilization
3	Compare and contrast the three major categories of gonadal cells in males and females (germ cells, nurse cells, steroid-producing cells)

Reproductive: hormonal control

1	Define homologue List the gonadotropic hormones List the hormones produced by the male and female gonad Define secondary sexual characteristic and give examples from both male and female Define menopause and climacteric
2	Describe the process of sex determination in humans Describe the role of gonadal steroids in shaping reproductive anatomy and behavior in various life stages: during development, at puberty, at maturity, and during aging Describe the role of the hormones of the hypothalamus, pituitary, and gonad in regulating gamete formation and maturation in both sexes Describe the events in the ovarian and uterine cycles and their relationship to pituitary and ovarian hormones Identify homologies between male and female reproductive anatomy in the internal and external genitalia Compare and contrast female and male sexual responses Compare and contrast the source and role of hormones during early vs. late pregnancy Explain the hormonal events that initiate and regulate labor Describe the physiological and fertility changes associated with menopause and the male climacteric
3	Solve problems related to negative feedback control of GnRH, gonadotropins, and gonadal steroids Relate the mechanisms of action of common birth control methods to the structure and function of the human reproductive system

	LECTURE LEARNING OBJECTIVES BIOL& 242 Learning objectives are organized into levels. Learn more.
	Exam 1	Endocrine I Endocrine II Blood Heart: intro & cellular function Heart: Control of cardiac output Vessels & blood pressure Lymphatic system
	Exam 2	Respiratory: gross & microanatomy Respiratory: ventilation Respiratory: gas exchange & transport Renal: intro and filtration Renal: reabsorption & secretion Renal: fluid & pH balance
	Exam 3	Digestive: upper GI tract Digestive: lower GI tract Reproductive: gamete production & transport Reproductive: hormonal control